Sadomasochism: The Pleasure of Pain

Carrie Haymore

University of North Carolina, Charlotte

Undergraduate Journal of Psychology,
Volume 15, 2002.
University of North Carolina At Charlotte.
Department of Psychology.

© The articles contained in this journal remain the property of the author(s). No part may be reproduced without express permission from the author(s), except in the case of brief quotations in critical reviews or articles.

Though long-standing stereotypes promote negative myths about sadomasochism, theorists and researchers agree that sadomasochistic desires and activities are normal, albeit not socially prominent, components of sexual functioning. Sadomasochism among consenting adults characterizes practices that include elements of implementing or receiving physical or psychological pain, dominance and submission, and bondage and discipline. Some activities, such as physical restriction, or bondage, are consistently much more commonly practiced than others, such as those involving acute pain, like genital piercing. Various researchers attribute the attraction of sadomasochism to individuals who are generally psychologically, socially, and sexually well adjusted.

Sadomasochism: The Pleasure of Pain

As a community that challenges traditional ideals of normal sexuality, the sadomasochistic subculture has long been misunderstood by mainstream society. Though sadomasochistic themes are beginning to be more prevalent in popular media, such as art, music, and fashion, individuals who choose to incorporate elements of sadomasochism into their sex lives are still often considered deviant. Sexual sadists are sometimes characterized as cruel, abusive, or violent, while sexual masochists may be denounced as victims who subject themselves to danger and oppression. In fact, these practices are even labeled as sexual disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [ DSM-IV ] (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1994). Research indicates, however, that these negative stereotypes are not typical of sadomasochistic behavior. Recent studies present self-identified sadomasochists as well-educated, well-adjusted, and sexually creative individuals who make safety and consensuality their main priorities.

Defining Sadomasochism

Though sadomasochism is commonly referred to as SM, the acronym BDSM actually offers a broader description of three predominant themes in sadomasochistic behavior (Ernulf & Innala, 1995). These integral concepts are bondage and discipline (B & D), dominance and submission (D & S), and sadism and masochism (S & M). Though these themes are essentially interrelated, they are separate in denotation and do not necessarily overlap. Depending on individual preference, one may choose to integrate certain aspects of any combination of the three themes into his or her personal sexual repertoire. For clarification, the term "dominant" is used to represent the partner who implements various practices, while the term "submissive" refers to the partner who is the recipient of those practices.

In the practice of bondage and discipline, physical restriction and psychological restraint facilitate obedience, servitude, training, and punishment. Physical bondage may take a number of forms, such as binding one’s partner with intricate rope knots into a position that inhibits movement, or tightly corseting the submissive in order to promote posture and restrict movement. Psychological bondage also includes a myriad of practices: a collar worn by the submissive, for instance, signifies obedience or ownership, and can be as strong a symbol of devotion as a wedding band (Wiseman, 1996). Dominance and submission are characterized by consensual power exchange that involves the execution of psychological or physical power upon the submissive partner, who in turn relinquishes his or her power to the dominant. Dominance and submission are often enacted within the script of fantasized roles, such as master or mistress and slave. An inequality of power characterizes this component of sadomasochism, and is demonstrated in activities such as the dominant commanding the submissive to kneel at his or her feet and perform oral sex. Krafft-Ebing (1965) described sadism as the desire to inflict pain, humiliation, or punishment for sexual pleasure. He described masochism as the desire to be subjugated to the will of another person through humiliation and physical or psychological pain. Though Krafft-Ebing viewed sadism and masochism as opposites, theorists such as Freud (1938) and Ellis (1926) described them as complimentary and intimately intertwined. This set of behaviors is most often portrayed by physical expressions like rhythmic flagellation (Ernulf & Innala, 1995).

Alison, Santtila, Sandnabba, and Nordling (2001) proposed a slight variation of the three categories described by BDSM. In their description of sadomasochistic behavior, the three primary themes are still intact though with different titles, and a fourth category is introduced. In this model, physical restriction, humiliation, and administration of pain are the three complimentary categories. The fourth element included in this model is hypermasculinity, which encompasses practices most commonly present in the gay male scene, such as urolangia, which involves the use of urine in sexual activities, male genital torture, and fisting. Like Ernulf and Innala (1995), Alison et al. recognize that while overlap often exists, the different facets are distinct, and individuals may prefer only certain types of activities.

Scenes

Considering that sadomasochistic behavior often takes place within the context of temporarily adopted roles, the interaction is called a "scene." In a study of male sadomasochistic behavior conducted by Sandnabba, Akademi, Santtila, and Nordling (1999), the researchers cited Townsend’s (1983) definition of the five primary elements usually included in a scene. These five elements are dominance and submission, pain experienced as pleasure, humiliation, fetishism, and ritualistic activities. Townsend’s list might not be the most appropriate description of a scene for two reasons. First, many researchers agree that humiliation is more clearly characterized as one type of dominance and submission rather than a separate element (Ernulf & Innala, 1995; Moser & Levitt 1987; Weinberg, Williams, & Moser, 1984). Second, the meaning of ritualistic activities is ambiguous. To his credit, however, Townsend included fetishism as a significant characteristic of sadomasochistic scenes. Fetishism is the sexual arousal to nonhuman objects, which are often articles of clothing (Allgeier & Allgeier, 2000). Leather, latex, corsets, and boots are fetish objects that are common in sadomasochistic scenes.

Through observation and personal interviews with members of the sadomasochistic community, Weinberg, Williams, and Moser (1984) derived a slightly different set of criteria for a scene. The elements described by Weinberg et al. refer more to the social characteristics of scenes rather than the sexual elements listed by Townsend (1983). The interplay of dominance and submission is the only feature common to the two descriptions. Role-playing, consensuality, erotic connotation, and a mutually shared assumption of sadomasochism by the participants were the remaining four elements identified.  The erotic meaning that is characteristic of scenes is important to note; a person who considers him or herself a sadomasochist would not perceive accidental pain outside the context of the scene as pleasurable. Consensuality is of paramount importance in sadomasochistic scenes. Participation in a scene is voluntary. Limits and acceptable as well as unacceptable behaviors are agreed upon ahead of time. For example, prior to a scene, participants usually adapt a "safe word" or gesture. If one person feels his or her limits are being surpassed, or feels unsafe or uncomfortable with the scene, he or she will utter the safe word or make a mutually understood gesture that will either end the scene immediately or reduce the intensity of the scene (Wiseman, 1996). Some individuals argue, however, that observant, empathic dominants usually need no provocation to know if the submissive is uncomfortable with the course of a scene (Ernulf & Innala, 1995). Violation of established limits is condemned within the community, and beyond the scope of safe sadomasochism.

Practices

Prevalence of Activities

The specific behaviors performed are varied with regard to types of activities as well as their prevalence. Striking similarities can be examined in five relevant studies. Moser and Levitt (1987) conducted a study of 178 male and 47 female self-identified sadomasochists, gathered primarily through two nationally recognized sadomasochism-oriented groups and a genre-specific magazine. Participants were asked which of 37 sexual activities they had ever experienced, and which of those they enjoyed. With a response rate of 81.9% of participants having tried it, and 66.1% reporting having enjoyed it, the most common activity was spanking. The second most common behavior was bondage; 77.4% had experienced bondage, and 65.0% of those enjoyed it. Materials often used in bondage scenes, such as rope, chains, and gags, were also frequently reported. Approximately two-thirds of the participants had experienced humiliation, whipping, and fetishism. Acutely painful and semi-permanent or permanent forms of body modification such as tattoos (6.8%), branding (10.1%), and piercing (14.7%) were relatively rare.

A comparable study by Breslow, Evans, and Langley (1985) produced similar results. Their sample was derived mostly from questionnaires included in three sadomasochistic-oriented magazines. A total of 182 individuals responded, including 130 males and 52 females. Ten males and 12 females admitted to being professional sex workers and were excluded from the sample. The most prevalent sexual interest reported by the participants was once again spanking, with 79% of males and 80% of females indicating that it was a preferred activity. Bondage and restraint, listed as separate categories, were reported as pleasurable by 60-67% of males and 83-87% of females. Stringent bondage was yet another category included in the questionnaire, though it was less common than bondage and restraint among the participants. Breslow et al.’s (1985) list of activities was less comprehensive than that of Moser and Levitt, and some behaviors listed such as "pain" and "torture" are ambiguous, as they do not specify the actual activities involved.

Conducted as a comparison to Breslow et al.’s data, Levitt, Moser, and Jamison (1994) obtained their sample of 45 females from the same two well-known sadomasochism groups that supplied their 1987 study. Consistent with the comparison data, the activities that received the highest rates of enjoyment from participants were spanking, bondage, and oral sex, with response rates of 79%, 77%, and 74%, respectively.

Alison et al. (2001) found similar results among their sample of 162 males and 22 females recruited from two sadomasochistic-oriented organizations. Among the respondents to the questionnaire adapted from Sandnabba et al.’s (1999) survey, 88% had experienced bondage, 81.8% had tried flagellation, and 77.5% had participated in oral-anal stimulation, a category included in the list of only one of the previously discussed studies. Perhaps the unusually high rate of oral-anal stimulation could be attributed to the fact that approximately half of the participants were members of a gay male club.

The most comprehensive survey of 40 sadomasochistic practices, compiled by Sandnabba et al. (1999), was created to measure the prevalence of sexual interest in 164 heterosexual and homosexual males from 2 clubs that promote sadomasochism. This particular sample revealed higher rates of participation in most activities. Oral sex was the most common practice among 96.8 % of the heterosexual males and 98.9% of the gay males. With respect to comparison between the heterosexual and homosexual males, 92.1% and 87.6% had experienced bondage, 90.6% and 77.3% had engaged in flagellation, and 81.0% and 65.9% had incorporated humiliation into their scenes. The study also represented a greater rate of participants whose repertoires had involved leather outfits, reported by 79.7% of the heterosexuals and an astounding 96.6% of the homosexuals in the sample. Both heterosexual and homosexual males commonly reported handcuffs, chains, anal intercourse, spanking, and male genital torture. Though the more physically intense and potentially dangerous activities, including body modification, controlled breathing, and electric shocks remained consistently less prevalent, they were reported with greater frequency than in the other four studies.

When viewing the data as a whole, several patterns are readily apparent. The most common practices, oral sex, bondage, humiliation, and spanking, are activities associated with dominance and submission and bondage and discipline. Although flagellation was frequently reported, physically painful activities, related to the themes of sadism and masochism, were generally less common. In addition, four of the studies surveyed the types of scripts typically employed in sadomasochistic scenes. The most common role-playing script in each sample was that of master or mistress and slave. The highest rate of interest in this script was 83.9%, reported by the males in Sandnabba et al.’s (1999) sample. Other common role-playing scenarios include uniform scenes, reported by over half of the gay males in the study conducted by Sandnabba et al., and teacher and student scripts, experienced by nearly half of the heterosexual males in the same study.

Roles

The research data are also fairly consistent regarding individuals’ preference for the dominant or submissive role. Males and females were both more likely to prefer the submissive role, though females more often cited versatility of roles. The most effective way to measure the range of role preferences seemed to be to on continuum. The levels of the continuum were exclusively submissive, predominantly submissive, enjoy both roles equally, predominantly dominant, and exclusively dominant. Breslow et al. (1985) found that 41% of the males and 40% of the females described themselves as predominantly or exclusively submissive, while only 33% of the males and 27.5% of the females preferred the dominant role. The remaining 26% of males and 32.5% of females stated that they enjoyed both roles equally. The data collected by Levitt et al.’s (1994) research on female sadomasochistic sexuality also indicates that females prefer the submissive role. Only 11.7% identified as dominant, while 47% preferred the submissive role, though 41.2% could be versatile. In Sandnabba et al.’s (1999) sample, 50.3% of the males favored the submissive role.

Sexual Bondage

Since sexual bondage is such a common theme in sadomasochistic subculture, it certainly merits further exploration. To examine the dynamics and provide some insight into individuals’ motives for engaging in bondage and discipline, Ernulf and Innala (1995) analyzed 514 messages pertaining to bondage that were posted to an Internet discussion group that caters to individuals who share that specific interest. The messages were sorted into 13 categories according to their descriptions of the bondage experience. The most frequent experience was play, described as sexually enhancing otherwise conventional sexual activities. The messages also described bondage as a power exchange between partners, an intensification of sexual pleasure due to the relinquishing of control and responsibility, tactile stimulation due to the physical pressure of the bonds, visual stimulation, and expression of trust. These specific motivations and experiences of individuals who enjoy sexual bondage add a more personal dimension to sadomasochistic activity.

Body Modification

Just as examining one of the most prevalent sadomasochistic activities, bondage, offers greater insight into the experience of participants, further investigation of one of the less common activities, body modification, is also relevant to explain more precisely the motivations of individuals involved. Various workshops and demonstrations on genital piercing, branding, burning, and cutting, sponsored by sadomasochistic organizations, provided Myers (1992) with valuable observations on this specialized interest. Myers noted that individuals often described a mental or physical high during the procedure, relating the modern ritual of such procedures to their ancient precursors, rituals performed as a means of transcendence. Motives cited for different types of body modification by those involved included sexual enhancement, pain, aesthetic value, and trust or loyalty. Myers asserted that sexual enhancement actually seemed to be the underlying motive of each of the other reasons stated. The specific pain involved in the activity was an essential component for many of the individuals. While mainstream culture may denounce extreme forms of body modification as mutilation, enthusiasts appreciate piercings, cuttings, brandings, and burnings for their unusual beauty. Finally, the permanence of these procedures can serve as a symbol of loyalty to one’s partner.

Demographics of Participants

Since the findings of the recent studies on sadomasochistic activities are so concordant, it is not surprising that they report similar demographics of their participants as well. According to the research, gender, age, education level, income, and personal satisfaction with their sexuality are all invariable characteristics among participants in the studies. In the sadomasochistic subculture, males outnumber females by as much as nearly 10 to 1 (Alison et al., 2001) to 4 to 1 (Breslow et al., 1985). Accurate representation of a stable proportion of different sexual orientations is virtually impossible to conclude from the available research, due to the inclusion of specifically gay clubs in some studies (Alison et al., 2001; Sandnabba et al., 1999). However, because of the open and experimental nature of the subculture, as well as the thriving gay male genre of sadomasochism, one could reasonably predict that the percentage of bisexuals and homosexuals involved in sadomasochism is higher than that of the general population. The predominant age of sadomasochistic individuals is remains stable between samples. The most common age of participants in the studies is between 30 and 40 for both males and females. While Moser and Levitt’s (1987) sample consisted of individuals with a mean age of 38.2 years, Levitt et al. (1994) found the mean age of their sample to be 30.7 for females and 33.4 for males, indicating a possible trend of individuals becoming involved in sadomasochism at a younger age. Additionally, Breslow et al. (1985) reported that 42.7 % of their male participants and 39% of their female participants were between the ages of 31 to 40.

Compared to the general population, individuals in the samples were highly educated. The lowest estimate of individuals who had attended college was 21.3 %, provided by Sandnabba et al. (1999), which is significantly higher than 3.7% of general Finnish population, where the study was conducted. Moser and Levitt (1987) reported the highest proportion of college-educated individuals: 70.2% of their sample held a college degree, and another 24.7% had attended college. Approximately one-third of Breslow et al.’s (1985) sample had attended college, while nearly half of the individuals in Levitt et al.’s (1994) study had attended college, with another 41.1 % having attained a college degree or post-graduate education. Possibly correlated with the high level of education of many practitioners of sadomasochism, the research indicates those individuals also earn a greater monthly income than the general population. According to Breslow et al. (1985) and Sandnabba et al. (1999) nearly 25% earned $2000-3000 per month. Furthermore, Sandnabba’s 24% of sample reported a monthly of over $3000. This research indicates that individuals involved in sadomasochism are indeed socially adjusted and in fact function quite successfully in their environments.

Though in the DSM-IV the APA (1994) concludes that sexual sadism and masochism are characterized by marked distress or impairment in one’s life, the majority of sadomasochistic individuals are satisfied with incorporating those elements into their sexual lives. Only 5.8% report wishing they were not interested in sadomasochism (Moser & Levitt, 1987). In the same study, only 5.6% had been a patient in a psychiatric hospital. Sandnabba et al. (1999) found that from 79% to 86% of the individuals in their sample felt emotions of happiness, gladness, and safety following their first experience, which had most often occurred between the ages of 21 and 25. Breslow et al. (1985) also reported that the majority of participants in their study were comfortable with their sexual interests. These finding lend further support in favor of the well-adjusted, healthy mental, emotional, and sexual state of individuals who enjoy sadomasochism. Just as homosexuality has been excluded from its former status as a mental disorder of sexual deviance in the DSM, sexual sadism and masochism will likely be expelled as well, as more research is offers insight into sadomasochism as an acceptable sexual preference.

Though individuals are compelled to engage in sadomasochism for different reasons, and therefore experience it differently, three themes are central to describing various practices: bondage and discipline, dominance and submission, and sadism and masochism. The interplay of these themes is essential to understanding the dynamics of sadomasochism. Individuals who participate in these practices describe their activities as an intense, explicitly focused yet transcendent physical, psychological, \and emotional expression of their sexuality. Just as certain symbols, such as particular body types and clothing styles are eroticized by popular culture, symbols such as submission as an expression of devotion, or the aesthetics of a certain fetish object, are quintessential to sadomasochistic sexuality. The research demonstrates that sadomasochistic individuals are well-adjusted persons who simply experience sex and eroticism differently than the norm.

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